Beyond lectures and practical courses: Teaching pharmacology using imaginative pedagogical tools.

Pharmacology has broadened its scope considerably in recent decades. Initially, it was of interest to chemists, doctors and pharmacists. In recent years, however, it has been incorporated into the teaching of biologists, molecular biologists, biotechnologists, chemical engineers and many health professionals, among others. Traditional teaching methods, such as lectures or laboratory work, have been superseded by the use of new pedagogical approaches to enable a better conceptualization and understanding of the discipline. In this article, we present several new methods that have been used in Spanish universities. Firstly, we describe a teaching network that has allowed the sharing of pedagogical innovations in Spanish universities. A European experience to improve prescribing safety is described in detail. The use of popular films and medical TV series in biomedical students shows how these audiovisual resources can be helpful in teaching pharmacology. The use of virtual worlds is detailed to introduce this new approach to teaching. The increasingly important area of the social aspects of pharmacology is also considered in two sections, one devoted to social pharmacology and the other to the use of learning based on social services to improve understanding of this important area. Finally, the use of Objective Structured Clinical Evaluation in pharmacology allows to know how this approach can help to better evaluate clinical pharmacology students. In conclusion, this article allows to know new pedagogical methods resources used in some Spanish universities that may help to improve the teaching of pharmacology.

A Modified Delphi Study to Establish Essential Clinical Pharmacology Competencies.

INTRODUCTION: Competency-based education has been commonly used to enhance the healthcare workforce for some time. A translational discipline that is integral to drug development and impactful on healthcare and public health is clinical pharmacology. With such contribution, it is essential that the clinical pharmacology workforce is adequately equipped to address the demands of emerging trends of drug development. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this study was to determine the most significant competencies needed for a clinical pharmacologist in the regulatory environment. METHODS: A two round modified Delphi technique was administered to 29 clinical pharmacologists within the Office of Clinical Pharmacology (OCP) between November 2021-January 2022. A questionnaire consisting of core and technical competencies was administered electronically using SurveyMonkey ® to gain consensus about essential clinical pharmacology competencies. Participants used a Likert scale to rank importance of competencies from strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), strongly disagree (5). Participants also suggested topics to be included in the next round. Consensus was set at 60%. The competencies receiving the most consensus at 60% in round one and the new topics proceeded to the second round. In the second and final round, participants ranked the suggested competencies. Descriptive statistics and a McNemar change test were utilized to analyze data. Only data from the participants who completed both rounds was used in the study. RESULTS: In round one participants ranked all fifty-six core and technical competencies as essential with consensus of at least 60%. In round two, participants ranked sixty-two competencies as essential with consensus of at least 60%. A McNemar change test demonstrated stability of ranking between rounds. CONCLUSION: Essential core and technical competencies can build education programs to sustain the emerging clinical pharmacology workforce in the Office of Clinical Pharmacology. The Delphi technique is a suitable approach to determine essential competencies because it cultivates consensus and gains insight from experts in the forefront of drug development.

Assessment of the capacity of ChatGPT as a self-learning tool in medical pharmacology: a study using MCQs.

BACKGROUND: ChatGPT is a large language model developed by OpenAI that exhibits a remarkable ability to simulate human speech. This investigation attempts to evaluate the potential of ChatGPT as a standalone self-learning tool, with specific attention on its efficacy in answering multiple-choice questions (MCQs) and providing credible rationale for its responses. METHODS: The study used 78 test items from the Korean Comprehensive Basic Medical Sciences Examination (K-CBMSE) for years 2019 to 2021. 78 test items translated from Korean to English with four lead-in prompts per item resulted in a total of 312 MCQs. The MCQs were submitted to ChatGPT and the responses were analyzed for correctness, consistency, and relevance. RESULTS: ChatGPT responded with an overall accuracy of 76.0%. Compared to its performance on recall and interpretation questions, the model performed poorly on problem-solving questions. ChatGPT offered correct rationales for 77.8% (182/234) of the responses, with errors primarily arising from faulty information and flawed reasoning. In terms of references, ChatGPT provided incorrect citations for 69.7% (191/274) of the responses. While the veracity of reference paragraphs could not be ascertained, 77.0% (47/61) were deemed pertinent and accurate with respect to the answer key. CONCLUSION: The current version of ChatGPT has limitations in accurately answering MCQs and generating correct and relevant rationales, particularly when it comes to referencing. To avoid possible threats such as spreading inaccuracies and decreasing critical thinking skills, ChatGPT should be used with supervision.

Combatting climate change using education and training in pharmacology and therapeutics.

The climate crisis has implications for the physical and mental health of people worldwide, while, paradoxically, healthcare itself contributes significant greenhouse gas emissions. Healthcare professionals need to be prepared to both mitigate the impacts of climate change and also manage the health effects of the climate crisis. Widespread adoption of sustainable healthcare models is required, with sustainability-driven improvements in clinical pharmacology intrinsically linked to this. Recognizing that education and training are essential steps to equip medical professionals with the knowledge to face the unprecedented challenges that the climate crisis presents, here, with reference to pharmacology and therapeutics, we discuss how the theme of Education for Sustainable Healthcare (ESH) can be integrated into undergraduate and postgraduate teaching programmes and how barriers to successful implementation can be tackled. We support the use of the Principles of Sustainable Clinical Practice as a framework to guide educational interventions and draw upon examples of our own practice at Brighton and Sussex Medical School where ESH has become a core component of medical education in our undergraduate curriculum.

[A new curriculum to strengthen pharmacology and clinical pharmacology training in fundamental nursing education].

Among medical care incidents in Japan, an increase in medicine-related errors by nurses have been reported. These errors may be caused by a lack of knowledge of clinical pharmacology and drug interactions. It is important for nurses to acquire risk-management skills based on clinical pharmacology. In order to improve fundamental knowledge in pharmacology and clinical pharmacology for nurses, various training programs exist. We reviewed a number of educational programs in medicine and report our results. Based on our results, it is necessary for medical education programs to include the following 5 essential elements: 1) An analysis of frequently-occurring medication errors in the field of clinical pharmacology, 2) drugs administer for patient characteristic and patient observation practices, 3) an emphasis on the interactions between drugs and food or other drugs, 4) assessment of patient symptoms, risk-management, and the efficacy of drugs, 5) the necessity of using the package inserts. In a new curriculum, it is necessary to have systematic, step by step training in pharmacology and clinical pharmacology. It is also necessary to develop these teaching methods in cooperation with specialists and experts in the field.

European association for clinical pharmacology and therapeutics young clinical pharmacologists working group: a cornerstone for the brighter future of clinical pharmacology.

The European Association for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics (EACPT) is a leading society in Europe serving the European and global Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics community. Its specific aims include promotion of the utilisation and divulgation of the utility of clinical pharmacology services in health care delivery. EACPT currently has four active working groups (WGs): Education, Regulatory affairs, Clinical research and Young Clinical Pharmacologists (YCP WG). EACPT YCP WG was established in 2015 with the idea of improving education, research, training and networking/mobility opportunities for YCPs across Europe and globe. The main objective of the present manuscript is to provide detailed information on general characteristics, structure, chronogram, objectives, accomplishments and current/future focus areas of the EACPT YCP WG. Consequently, we tend to notably enhance EACPT YCP WG's visibility, increase the number of its members and mobility/networking options and to expand areas of activity even more. Moreover, by this we can also make clinical pharmacology more attractive to early career fellows and colleagues and empower its position alongside other medical specialties.

[What aspects do medical students find important during medical school to develop basic prescribing skills?] / Vad läkarstudenter anser viktigt på utbildningen för att kunna läkemedelsbehandla patienter.

The process of acquiring prescribing skills starts in medical school, and recent research highlights that educational efforts are needed to make students sufficiently prepared for this professional task. In this study, we explored and quantified aspects that medical students find important during medical school to develop basic prescribing skills. Written text from 75 final-year students (median age: 25 years, 59% female) formed the data. At the end of an anonymous and voluntary test in clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, the students provided (i) information regarding key elements in medical school that had prepared them for prescribing and (ii) suggestions for facilitating their learning of pharmacotherapy. In a manifest content analysis, five themes emerged: workplace-based learning under supervision and taking responsibility for patients; theoretical knowledge base for prescribing; writing prescriptions and helpful resources; varied teaching methods with specific examinations; and continuity, repetition, and progression. The quantitative analysis revealed that workplace-based learning was the most frequently recurring key element for the learning process, and case seminars a preferred pedagogic format. Most suggestions to facilitate learning concerned the category pharmacotherapeutics theory. Categories of the theme continuity, repetition, and progression, as opposed to other themes, encompassed no key elements but only suggestions to facilitate learning. These themes and categories, summarising aspects that medical students find important in the process of acquiring basic prescribing skills essential for their professional life, could form a basis for further developments of pharmacotherapy in medical school.

Design of a foundational sciences curriculum: Applying the ICAP framework to pharmacology education in integrated medical curricula.

Expectations for physicians are rapidly changing, as is the environment in which they will practice. In response, preclerkship medical education curricula are adapting to meet these demands, often by reducing the time for foundational sciences. This descriptive study compares preclerkship pharmacology education curricular practices from seven allopathic medical schools across the United States. We compare factors and practices that affect how pharmacology is integrated into the undergraduate medical education curriculum, including teaching techniques, resources, time allocated to pharmacology teaching, and assessment strategies. We use data from seven medical schools in the United States, along with results from a literature survey, to inform the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches and to raise important questions that can guide future research regarding integration of foundational sciences in medical school and health professions' curricula. In this comparative study, we found that there is significant heterogeneity in the number of hours dedicated to pharmacology in the preclerkship curriculum, whereas there was concordance in the use of active learning pedagogies for content delivery. Applying the ICAP (Interactive, Constructive, Active, Passive) Framework for cognitive engagement, our data showed that pharmacology was presented using more highly engaging pedagogies during sessions that are integrated with other foundational sciences. These findings can serve as a model that can be applied beyond pharmacology to other foundational sciences such as genetics, pathology, microbiology, biochemistry, etc.

The importance of collaboratively designing pharmacology education programs.

A grounded knowledge of pharmacology is essential for healthcare providers to improve the quality of patients' lives, avoid medical errors, and circumvent potentially dangerous drug-drug interactions. One of the greatest tools to achieve this foundational knowledge of pharmacology is the dedicated pharmacology educators who teach in health sciences programs. Too often, the pharmacology educators responsible for teaching this material are left siloed at their own institutions with little room for dialog and collaboration. As scientists, we know that it is through dialog and collaboration that ideas grow, are refined, and improve. More collaborative work is needed to identify and describe best practices for pharmacology education in health sciences programs. While evidence-based, outcomes-focused studies are the optimum standard for this work, there is also a place for descriptive studies and innovative reports.

Clinical Pharmacology Worldwide: A Global Health Perspective.

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have the highest rates of mortality and morbidity globally, but lag behind high-income countries in the number of clinical trials and trained researchers, as well as research data pertaining to their populations. Lack of local clinical pharmacology and pharmacometrics expertise, limited training opportunities, and lack of local genomic data may contribute to health inequalities and limit the application of precision medicine. Continuing to develop health care infrastructure, including well-designed clinical pharmacology training and data collection in LMICs, can help address these challenges. International collaboration aimed at improving training and infrastructure and encouraging locally driven research and clinical trials will be of benefit. This review describes several examples where clinical pharmacology expertise could be leveraged, including opportunities for pharmacogenomic expertise that could drive improved recommendations for clinical guidelines. Also described are clinical pharmacology and pharmacometrics training programs in Africa, and the personal experience of a Tanzanian researcher currently on a training sabbatical in the United States, as illustrative examples of how training in clinical pharmacology can be effectively implemented in LMICs. These training efforts will benefit from advocacy for employment opportunities and career development pathways for clinical pharmacologists that are gradually being recognized and developed in LMICs. Clinical pharmacologists have a key role to play in global health, and development of training and research infrastructure to advance this expertise in LMICs will be of tremendous benefit.

[Approach to Starting Clinical Pharmacy Practice Experience Based on the Model Core Curriculum for Pharmacy Education (2013 Version) in Hokkaido Prefecture].

The Model Core Curriculum for Pharmacy Education was revised in 2013 and has been applied to all pharmaceutical universities throughout Japan since 2015. Based on this revised core curriculum for pharmaceutical education, Pharmacy Practice Experiences began in February 2019. This Model Core Curriculum focuses on application of outcome-based education in order to achieve "professional competencies for pharmacists". The Model Core Curriculum for Pharmacy Practice Experiences addressed two main points: the eight common diseases that trainees should learn about, and collaboration between universities, pharmacies, and hospitals to conduct effective training for students. In Hokkaido, the Pharmacy Education Council Hokkaido District Coordination Agency, organized by the Hokkaido Pharmaceutical Association, the Hokkaido Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Hokkaido University, and Hokkaido University of Science, and Health Sciences University of Hokkaido has worked to improve practical pharmacy education since four-year pharmacy education programs. Additionally, the agency is central to coordinating and responding to various issues and working toward the implementation of practical pharmacy training. I contributed as chair of the working group to implement pharmacy practice experiences based on revisions of the core curriculum. In particular, we formulated evaluation standards based on sample evaluations presented at a liaison conference on the practical aspects of pharmacy. In addition, in order to convey the changes in pharmacy practice experiences based on this revised core curriculum for pharmacists, I contributed to the implementation of new pharmacy practices as an instructor at seminars in Hokkaido.

Analysis of Computer Adaptive Testing in a Pathopharmacology Course.

BACKGROUND: The use of various textbook and testing options for nursing education presents opportunities and challenges for nurse educators and students. The use of computer adaptive testing enables students to study material, quiz themselves on that material, and increase their levels of content mastery. The purpose of this study was to describe the effect of one computer adaptive testing program into a course that combined pathophysiology and pharmacology in a baccalaureate prelicensure nursing program. METHOD: A retrospective correlational design was used to explore the relationships between (a) computer adaptive quizzing, (b) quiz completion, (c) mastery of content, and (d) a standardized, computer-based pathophysiology examination. RESULTS: Positive correlations were found between (a) quizzes completed and mastery level (r = .605, p < .001), (b), quizzes completed and standardized test scores (r = .349, p = .020), (c) number of questions completed and mastery level (r = .636, p < .001), (d) questions completed and standardized test scores (r = .365, p = .015), and (e) higher mastery levels and standardized test scores (r = .400, p = .007). CONCLUSION: Computer adaptive quizzing provides students with opportunities to improve content mastery and provides more experience with computer-based testing. [J Nurs Educ. 2021;60(3):155-158.].

EurOP2E - the European Open Platform for Prescribing Education, a consensus study among clinical pharmacology and therapeutics teachers.

PURPOSE: Sharing and developing digital educational resources and open educational resources has been proposed as a way to harmonize and improve clinical pharmacology and therapeutics (CPT) education in European medical schools. Previous research, however, has shown that there are barriers to the adoption and implementation of open educational resources. The aim of this study was to determine perceived opportunities and barriers to the use and creation of open educational resources among European CPT teachers and possible solutions for these barriers. METHODS: CPT teachers of British and EU medical schools completed an online survey. Opportunities and challenges were identified by thematic analyses and subsequently discussed in an international consensus meeting. RESULTS: Data from 99 CPT teachers from 95 medical schools were analysed. Thirty teachers (30.3%) shared or collaboratively produced digital educational resources. All teachers foresaw opportunities in the more active use of open educational resources, including improving the quality of their teaching. The challenges reported were language barriers, local differences, lack of time, technological issues, difficulties with quality management, and copyright restrictions. Practical solutions for these challenges were discussed and include a peer review system, clear indexing, and use of copyright licenses that permit adaptation of resources. CONCLUSION: Key challenges to making greater use of CPT open educational resources are a limited applicability of such resources due to language and local differences and quality concerns. These challenges may be resolved by relatively simple measures, such as allowing adaptation and translation of resources and a peer review system.

Una experiencia de tipo aprendizaje basado en problemas en la asignatura Farmacología Médica Aplicada del grado de Medicina / A problem-based learning (PBL) type experience in the subject of Applied Medical Pharmacology in Medical degree

INTRODUCCIÓN: Una de las competencias profesionales más importantes en el grado de Medicina es la prescripción racional de medicamentos basada en criterios científicos y éticos. En 2009-2010 implementamos una experiencia de tipo aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP) en una asignatura de 5.º curso del grado de Medicina con el fin de mejorar la adquisición de dicha competencia, y durante 10 años analizamos el rendimiento académico y la opinión del alumnado. MÉTODOS: Obtuvimos los indicadores de satisfacción por la asignatura, percepción sobre el ABP y rendimiento académico en el período 2009-2019 y los comparamos con los cursos previos (2005-2009) en la asignatura Farmacología Médica Aplicada en las unidades docentes de Basurto y Donostia (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea). RESULTADOS: Durante los cursos 2009-2019, la satisfacción global del alumnado sobre la asignatura fue más favorable que en los cursos 2005-2009 en todas las dimensiones medidas. Respecto al ABP, el alumnado percibió como positivo su diseño y su capacidad para desarrollar competencias transversales y específicas. La calificación media del alumnado en la asignatura disminuyó ligeramente, pero aumentó la tasa de evaluación. CONCLUSIÓN: Las metodologías activas de tipo ABP permitieron trabajar las competencias transversales y específicas de la asignatura. El alumnado fue consciente del desarrollo de estas competencias y lo hizo con una mejora de opinión sobre las distintas dimensiones de la asignatura y con pocos cambios en el rendimiento

INTRODUCTION: One of the most important professional competence in Medical degree is the rational prescription of drugs based on scientific and ethical criteria. In 2009-10, a Problem Based Learning type experience was implemented in a subject of the fifth year of Medical degree to increase the acquisition of the competence. In the following ten years, the academic performance and opinion of students were analysed. METHODS: We obtained satisfaction indicators for the subject of Applied Medical Pharmacology, PBL perception of the students and their academic performance in the teaching Unities of Basurto and Donostia (UPV/EHU) during the period 2009-19 and compared them with those in previous years (2005-09). RESULTS: During 2009-19, the global satisfaction of the students for the subject was more favorable for all measured dimensions With regard to the PBL experience, the students perceive its design and its capacity to develop transversal and specific competencies as positive. The average score of the students in the subject decreased slightly but the evaluation rate increased. CONCLUSIONS: PBL type active methodologies enable to work transversal and specific competencies of the subject. The student were conscious of the development of these competencies and had better opinion on different dimensions of the subject with little changes in their performance

Harmonizing and improving European education in prescribing: An overview of digital educational resources used in clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

AIM: Improvement and harmonization of European clinical pharmacology and therapeutics (CPT) education is urgently required. Because digital educational resources can be easily shared, adapted to local situations and re-used widely across a variety of educational systems, they may be ideally suited for this purpose. METHODS: With a cross-sectional survey among principal CPT teachers in 279 out of 304 European medical schools, an overview and classification of digital resources was compiled. RESULTS: Teachers from 95 (34%) medical schools in 26 of 28 EU countries responded, 66 (70%) of whom used digital educational resources in their CPT curriculum. A total of 89 of such resources were described in detail, including e-learning (24%), simulators to teach pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics (10%), virtual patients (8%), and serious games (5%). Together, these resources covered 235 knowledge-based learning objectives, 88 skills, and 13 attitudes. Only one third (27) of the resources were in-part or totally free and only two were licensed open educational resources (free to use, distribute and adapt). A narrative overview of the largest, free and most novel resources is given. CONCLUSION: Digital educational resources, ranging from e-learning to virtual patients and games, are widely used for CPT education in EU medical schools. Learning objectives are based largely on knowledge rather than skills or attitudes. This may be improved by including more real-life clinical case scenarios. Moreover, the majority of resources are neither free nor open. Therefore, with a view to harmonizing international CPT education, more needs to be learned about why CPT teachers are not currently sharing their educational materials.

Switching from a traditional undergraduate programme in (clinical) pharmacology and therapeutics to a problem-based learning programme.

PURPOSE: The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology and therapeutics (CPT) education during the undergraduate medical curriculum of NOVA Medical School, Lisbon, Portugal, was changed from a traditional programme (i.e. discipline-based, lectures) to a problem-based learning (PBL) programme (i.e. integrated, case-based discussions) without an increase in teaching hours. The aim of this study was to investigate whether this change improved the prescribing competencies of final-year medical students. METHODS: Final-year students from both programmes (2015 and 2019) were invited to complete a validated prescribing assessment and questionnaire. The assessment comprised 24 multiple-choice questions in three subdomains (working mechanism, side-effects and interactions/contraindications), and five clinical case scenarios of common diseases. The questionnaire focused on self-reported prescribing confidence, preparedness for future prescribing task and education received. RESULTS: In total, 36 (22%) final-year medical students from the traditional programme and 54 (23%) from the PBL programme participated. Overall, students in the PBL programme had significantly higher knowledge scores than students in the traditional programme (76% (SD 9) vs 67% (SD 15); p = 0.002). Additionally, students in the PBL programme made significantly fewer inappropriate therapy choices (p = 0.023) and fewer erroneous prescriptions than did students in the traditional programme (p = 0.27). Students in the PBL programme felt more confident in prescribing, felt better prepared for prescribing as junior doctor and completed more drug prescriptions during their medical training. CONCLUSION: Changing from a traditional programme to an integrated PBL programme in pharmacology and CPT during the undergraduate medical curriculum may improve the prescribing competencies of final-year students.